The pathophysiology of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is largely related to an innate defect in the immune system culminating in a loss of self-tolerance and destruction of the insulin-producing β-cells. Currently, there is no definitive cure for T1DM. Insulin injection does not mimic the precise regulation of β-cells on glucose homeostasis, leading long term to the development of complications. Stem cell therapy is a promising approach and specifically mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) offer a promising possibility that deserves to be explored further. MSCs are multipotent, nonhematopoietic progenitors. They have been explored as an treatment option in tissue regeneration as well as potential of in vitro transdifferentiation into insulin-secreting cells. Thus, the major therapeutic goals for T1DM have been achieved in this way. The regenerative capabilities of MSCs have been a driving force to initiate studies testing their therapeutic effectiveness; their immunomodulatory properties have been equally exciting; which would appear capable of disabling immune dysregulation that leads to β-cell destruction in T1DM. Furthermore, MSCs can be cultured under specially defined conditions, their transdifferentiation can be directed toward the β-cell phenotype, and the formation of insulin-producing cells (IPCs) can be targeted. To date, the role of MSCs-derived IPC in T1DM-a unique approach with some positive findings-have been unexplored, but it is still in its very early phase. In this study, a new approach of MSCs-derived IPCs, as a potential therapeutic benefit for T1DM in experimental animal models as well as in humans has been summarized.

Despite high expectations of safer, effective, economical, longer acting contraceptives, to date, there are no licensed contraceptive vaccines available in the market. Nevertheless, a role for vaccines undoubtedly exists as an aid to birth spacing and as a nonsurgical means of generating sterility. The research concerned in the area so far has been successful on the feline population, with room still for exhaustive studies on humans. The future of contraceptive vaccines holds great promise in terms of comfort, price, efficacy, rare complications, and possibly nonselective action on animal populations as well as on humans. This brief review deals with the basic aspects of immunocontraceptives along with the efforts done so far. There is a need for further research in aspects involving the rate of evolution of contraception resistance based on genetics, resistance phenotypes, or cross generation effects. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone and luteinizing-hormone have not been investigated in humans, as both reported impotency in animals; the follicle-stimulating hormone has been shown to cause oligospermia; zona pellucida has also not been studied in humans as it causes irreversible oophoritis, while the sperm has the potential for success in humans based on the data from immunoreproductive studies. Even as the position of the human chorionic gonadotropin vaccine looks hopeful, research on other possible targets continue with an eventual aim of discovering a vaccine that is more immunogenically effective.

Platelet-rich plasma (PRP), an autologous derivative of whole blood, has been recently used in surgical treatment. PRP contains growth factors including transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), insulin-like growth factor (IGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and also bioactive proteins that influence the healing of tendon, ligament, muscle, and bone. This article describes the current clinical applications of PRP in chondrogenesis. This study reviews and evaluates the studies that have been published in the field of chondrogenesis. All aspects of using PRP in chondrogenesis are reviewed.

Asthma is a reversible airway obstruction that is characterized by constriction of airway smooth muscle, hyper secretion of mucus, edema and airway hyper responsiveness (AHR), mucus secretion and thickening of the basement membrane underlying the airway epithelium. During the process of airway inflammation, complex interactions of innate and adaptive immune cells as well as structural cells and their cytokines have many important roles. It was believed that airway inflammation is orchestrated by allergen specific T helper (Th) 2 cells, which recruit and accumulate in the lungs and produce a range of different effector cytokines. However, more recent studies have revealed the potential collaboration of other helper T cells and their cytokines in this process. Th17 cell may have a role in severe asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Interleukin (IL)-9-producing subset called Th9 cell, Th22 cells which primarily secrete IL-22, IL-13 and tumor necrosis factor-α and Th25 cells via producing IL-25 are believed to be important for initiating allergic reactions and developing airway inflammation. Cytokines are important in asthma and play a critical role in orchestrating the allergic inflammatory response, although the precise role of each cytokine remains to be determined. The aim of this review is to summarize the current knowledge about the possible roles of newly identified helper T cells derived cytokines (IL-9, 17, 22, 25 and IL-33) in asthma. The potential therapeutic applications emerging from the roles of these cytokines will be discussed as well.

Biosensors are small devices that employ biological/biochemical reactions for detecting target analytes. Basically, the device consists of a biocatalyst and a transducer. The biocatalyst may be a cell, tissue, enzyme or even an oligonucleotide. The transducers are mainly amperometric, potentiometric or optical. The classification of biosensors is based on (a) the nature of the recognition event or (b) the intimacy between the biocatalyst and the transducer. Bioaffinity and biocatalytic devices are examples for the former and the first, whereas second and third generation instruments are examples for the latter. Cell-based biosensors utilizing immobilized cells, tissues as also enzyme immunosensors and DNA biosensors find variegated uses in diagnostics. Enzyme nanoparticle-based biosensors make use of small particles in the nanometer scale and are currently making a mark in laboratory medicine. Nanotechnology can help in optimizing the diagnostic biochips, which would facilitate sensitive, rapid, accurate and precise bedside monitoring. Biosensors render themselves as capable diagnostic tools as they meet most of the above-mentioned criteria.

Helicobacter pylori has been associated with colonization of gastro duodenal mucosa of humans from millions of years. The main burden of the disese is in the developing countries, due to overcrowding and poor hygiene. If left untreated it leads to lot of sequlae from minor to sinister diseases over a period of time. The main challenges that remain are prevention of H. pylori-related diseases by effective treatment and screening procedures and development of a vaccine, which can address all these issues including beneficial aspects of H. pylori. The literature pertaining to different aspects of H. pylori were scrutinized from Pubmed. Material on clinical behavior, complications of chronic gastric involvement, and prevention besides role of H. pylori in nongastric diseases and the latest trends of management was collected for research and review. We continue to face many challenges.The prevention of cancer of the stomach, a worst sequlae of H. pylori continues to be a big challenge despite population screening and prevention surveys being underway in many countries. On the other hand continued scientific work has now unfolded involvement of H. pylori in extragastric diseases like cerebrovascular, cardiovascular, idiopathic thrombocytopenia, sideroblastic anemia, mental diseases, and collagen vascular diseases. In contrast, the beneficial effects of H. pylori with respect to allergic diseases and obesity are now clear. Moreover, problem of drug resistance for eradication of H. pylori has arisen for which novel treatments are being tried. Lactobacillus reuteri having anti H. pylori action is emerging as one of the promising treatment.

Background: Several evidences have been reported so far in terms of the relationship between obesity and glycemic index and glycemic load in children. However, the number of review studies that have dealt with recent findings is quite low. The purpose of present study is to review the existing evidences in this regard. Materials and Methods: First of all, the phrases: "Glycaemic index", "Glycaemic load", "Glycemic index" OR "Glycemic load" accompanied by one of the words: "Adolescent", "Young", "Youth" "Children" OR "Child" were searched in texts of articles existing in ISI and PUBMED databases which were obtained out of 1001 articles. Among these, some articles, which reviewed the relationship of obesity with glycemic index and glycemic load, were selected. Finally, 20 articles were studied in current review study. Results: The majority of cross-sectional studies have found children's obesity directly linked with glycemic index and glycemic load; however, cohort studies found controversial results. Also, the intervention studies indicate the negative effect of glycemic index and glycemic load on obesity in children. Conclusion: Published evidences reported inconsistent results. It seems that existing studies are not sufficient and more studies are needed in this regard.

Chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs), including cardiovascular diseases, cancers, chronic respiratory diseases, diabetes, etc., are the major causes of mortality in the world, notably in low- and middle-income countries. A growing body of evidence suggests that NCDs have a complex etiology resulting from the interaction of genetic factors, gender, age, ethnicity, and the environmental factors. It is well-documented that chronic diseases in adulthood origins in early life. In recent years, much attention has been focused on primordial and primary prevention of NCD risk factors. There are many biological and epidemiological studies on beneficial effects of breastfeeding during infancy on chronic diseases in adulthood, particularly on hypertension, obesity, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, and cardiovascular diseases. This review article aims to summarize the current literature on the long-term effects of breastfeeding on prevention of NCDs and their risk factors. The current literature is controversial about these effects; however, a growing body of evidence suggests that breastfeeding has protective roles against obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and type II diabetes mellitus during adulthood. In addition to its short-term benefits, encouraging breastfeeding can have long-term beneficial health effects at individual and population levels.

Common variable immunodeficfiiency (CVID) is a primary immunodeficiency syndrome representing a heterogeneous set of disorders resulting mostly in antibody deficiency and recurrent infections. However, inflammatory and autoimmune disorders and some kinds of malignancies are frequently reported as a part of the syndrome. Although it is one of the most widespread primary immunodeficiency, only recently some genetic defects in CVID have been identified. Mutations have been detected in inducible T-cell costimulator (ICOS), transmembrane activator and calcium modulator and cyclophilin ligand interactor (TACI), B-cell activating factor-receptor (BAFF-R), B-cell receptor complex (CD19, CD21 and CD81) and CD20. On the other hand, recent studies have shown a decrease in T-helper-17 cells frequency and their characteristic cytokines in CVID patients and this emphasis on the vital role of the T-cells in immunopathogenesis of the CVID. Furthermore, in the context of autoimmune diseases accompanying CVID, interleukin 9 has recently attracted a plenty of considerations. However, the list of defects is expanding as exact immunologic pathways and genetic disorders in CVID are not yet defined. In this review, we have a special focus on the immunopathogenesis of CVID, recent advances in understanding the underlying etiology and genetics for patients.

The mucosal immune system in the female reproductive tract (FRT) is well equipped to meet the sexually transmitted pathogens, allogeneic sperm, and the immunologically distinct fetus. Analysis of the FRT indicates that epithelial cells provide a physical barrier against pathogens and microbial infections as well as secretions containing anti-microbial peptides, cytokines, and chemokines which recruit and activate immune cells. Epithelial and immune cells confer protection in part through Toll-like receptors. The aim of this literature is to review the diverse components of the innate immune system, contributing to an exclusive protection system throughout the FRT.